What are the environmental impacts of producing and disposing of EV batteries?

Introduction

The electric vehicle (EV) market is experiencing explosive growth, with automakers worldwide adding electric models to their lineups. Projections indicate that Electric Vehicles will account for half the models released after 2030. This rapid transition raises an important question: are Electric Vehicles truly as environmentally friendly as they are often portrayed?

While EVs offer the benefit of reduced emissions during operation, a comprehensive understanding of their environmental impact requires a thorough examination of their entire life cycle, from raw material extraction to end-of-life management. This includes a close look at the batteries that power them.

This article aims to provide a detailed exploration of the environmental challenges and potential solutions associated with Electric Vehicle batteries. We will analyze various aspects including life cycle assessment (LCA), the sourcing of critical raw materials, recycling processes, and the potential of second-life applications. This journey will provide insights into the complexities of achieving a truly sustainable electric mobility future.

Here’s a breakdown of the key areas to consider:

1. Manufacturing and Material Extraction

• Resource Intensive: The manufacturing of Electric Vehicle batteries requires significant amounts of raw materials, including lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese. The extraction of these materials through mining can lead to habitat destruction, water pollution, and soil erosion.
• Energy Intensive: The battery manufacturing process is energy-intensive, and the carbon footprint of production varies based on the energy sources used in manufacturing. For example, battery manufacturing in China and other parts of East Asia can have higher emissions than in the U.S. and Europe due to different energy mixes.
• Supply Chain Concerns: There are concerns about the ethical sourcing of raw materials for batteries, with some materials coming from regions with poor labor practices or conflict. The increasing demand for these materials also raises concerns about resource depletion.

2. Battery Types and Their Impacts

• Lithium-ion (Li-ion) Batteries: These are the most common type of Electric Vehicle batteries and have a number of variations, such as Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC) and Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP). NMC batteries have been popular and are projected to remain so, while LFP batteries are gaining popularity due to being cheaper and more heat-resistant, and because they use more readily available materials.
• Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) Batteries: These batteries are known for their enhanced safety and longevity compared to traditional Li-ion batteries, with a life expectancy ranging from 5 to 15 years. They are often used in applications requiring high reliability and safety, like stationary energy storage systems and electric buses.
• Lithium Polymer (LiPo) Batteries: Commonly used in drones and portable electronics, LiPo batteries offer flexibility and a lightweight design but typically have a shorter lifespan of 2 to 5 years. These batteries are more sensitive to physical damage and require careful handling to prevent safety issues.

3. Operational Impact

• Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Electric Vehicles produce zero tailpipe emissions, which can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, particularly if charged with electricity from renewable sources. The overall impact of Electric Vehicles on the environment is dependent on the source of the energy used to charge them.
• Grid Stabilization: Electric Vehicle batteries can be used for energy grid stabilization, storing solar and wind power when it’s plentiful and helping to manage fluctuations in renewable energy supply.
• Battery Degradation: Electric Vehicle batteries degrade over time, which can reduce their range and efficiency. Factors affecting battery aging include operating temperature, depth of discharge, discharge rate, state of charge, and time.

4. End-of-Life Management

• Recycling: Recycling Electric Vehicle batteries is essential to recover valuable materials and reduce the need for new mining. Current recycling methods have limitations, particularly in the recovery of lithium. However, advancements in direct recycling methods are an important direction for further research.
• Second-Life Applications: Repurposing Electric Vehicle batteries for secondary use, such as stationary energy storage, can extend their lifespan and reduce waste. After use in EVs, batteries often retain 60% to 80% of their initial capacity, making them suitable for less-demanding applications. The profitability of second-life applications is also determined by regulations and energy prices.
• Refurbishment: Before recycling, Electric Vehicle batteries can be assessed to see if their operational life can be extended through refurbishment. The success of refurbishment depends on factors like cell conversion rates and the second lifespan of the batteries.

5. Improving Sustainability

• New Battery Chemistries: Research is ongoing to develop new battery chemistries that use more readily available, environmentally friendly materials.
• Design for Recycling and Refurbishment: Automakers may need to design Electric Vehicles with second-life applications in mind. Battery packs should be designed in ways that facilitate recycling and refurbishment.
• Government Support and Regulations: Regulations can help clarify the extended liability of manufacturers for batteries and promote recycling. Government support is important for the development of second-life applications for batteries.

6. Life Cycle Assessment

• Comprehensive Analysis: Life cycle assessments (LCAs) are used to evaluate the environmental impacts of Electric Vehicles and their batteries from cradle to grave. These analyses consider all stages of the Electric Vehicle life cycle, from material extraction to end-of-life, and must account for different factors such as the electricity mix used for charging.
• Dynamic Factors: When assessing the use stage impacts of EVs, it’s important to include factors like battery efficiency fade and changes to the electricity sector. Ignoring such factors may make LCA results unreliable.

In conclusion, while Electric Vehicle batteries are a crucial part of the shift toward sustainable transportation, they also introduce complex environmental challenges. By focusing on responsible material sourcing, advancements in battery technology, effective recycling, and second-life applications, the EV industry can work towards a truly sustainable future. The sources also suggest that further research and development in battery technology and recycling will be essential to fully realize the environmental benefits of electric vehicles.

I. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Electric Vehicle Batteries: A Holistic View

To accurately evaluate the environmental impact of any product, including Electric Vehicle batteries, we must use a life cycle assessment (LCA). LCA is a methodology used to assess the environmental impacts associated with all stages of a product’s life, from the extraction of raw materials to its end-of-life management. This approach provides a comprehensive view, ensuring no impact is overlooked.

An EV battery’s life cycle involves several key stages:

• Raw material extraction: This initial stage involves the mining and sourcing of various materials necessary for battery production.
• Battery manufacturing: This phase includes the manufacturing of battery cells, the assembly of modules, and their integration into battery packs.
• Vehicle use: This stage encompasses the operational life of the Electric Vehicle, considering energy consumption and emissions during driving.
• End-of-life management: This final stage includes the recycling, reuse, or disposal of the battery.

By analyzing each of these stages, we can understand the overall environmental footprint of Electric Vehicle batteries. It’s crucial to recognize that Electric Vehicles, just like internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), have a negative environmental impact across their entire life cycle.

The significant difference lies in the nature of these impacts and their stages. Unlike conventional vehicles that primarily cause environmental issues during their operational phase, EVs face significant challenges during the extraction of raw materials and at the production and disposal stages. The most problematic aspect is the production and disposal of components of the electric transmission system, particularly lithium-ion batteries. This underscores the need to delve deeper into each of these stages to fully comprehend and address these challenges.

II. Raw Material Extraction and its Impacts: The Hidden Costs

The production of Electric Vehicle batteries relies heavily on a range of critical raw materials (CRMs). These materials are deemed “critical” due to their economic importance and the high risk of supply disruptions.

Key CRMs used in Electric Vehicle batteries include:

• Lithium: A crucial component for the battery’s electrolyte and cathode.
• Cobalt: Used in the cathode to stabilize the battery structure and enhance performance.
• Nickel: Another key component in the cathode, contributing to energy density.
• Manganese: Also used in the cathode to enhance battery performance and stability.
• Rare-earth elements: Used in the electric motors and some battery chemistries.

The availability of these resources directly affects the production costs of new batteries and, consequently, the sales price of Electric Vehicles. The process of extracting these materials can lead to several environmental and social problems:

• Habitat Destruction: Mining operations often result in deforestation and the destruction of natural habitats, leading to biodiversity loss.
• Water Pollution: Mining activities can contaminate water sources with toxic chemicals and heavy metals.
• Soil Degradation: Mining can degrade soil quality, making it unsuitable for agriculture and other uses.
• Air Pollution: The extraction and processing of raw materials can result in significant air pollution, releasing harmful substances.

Additionally, mining can cause human toxicity due to the processing of various metals. The social implications are also significant, as mining regions often face issues such as human rights concerns and unfair labor practices. Therefore, the extraction of raw materials is not only an environmental issue but also a social one.

III. Battery Manufacturing Process: Energy and Emissions

The manufacturing process of Electric Vehicle batteries is complex and energy-intensive, involving several key steps:

• Cell production: This involves the chemical synthesis and assembly of the battery’s core components, such as the cathode, anode, electrolyte, and separator.
• Module assembly: Individual cells are grouped into modules, which form the building blocks of the larger battery pack.
• Pack integration: The modules are then combined with other components, such as the battery management system (BMS), into the final battery pack.

The energy consumption and emissions associated with battery manufacturing vary significantly depending on the region and the energy mix used for electricity generation. The carbon footprint of battery production is not uniform, and can be influenced by several factors. For instance, the source of electricity used in manufacturing has a significant impact.

A facility powered by renewable energy will have a lower carbon footprint than one relying on fossil fuels. It is important to note that, the manufacturing process of both Electric Vehicles and ICE vehicles requires a combination of aluminum and steel to build the chassis. Emissions from smelting these remain the same for both types of vehicles. The environmental impact of battery production begins to change when we consider the manufacturing process of the battery in EVs.

IV. EV Battery Use and Performance: The Role of the Energy Mix

While Electric Vehicles produce zero tailpipe emissions, their overall environmental performance depends heavily on the source of electricity used to charge them. This concept is referred to as the “energy mix“. The energy mix describes the combination of various sources of energy used for electricity generation in a given region or country. If the electricity used to charge an EV comes primarily from fossil fuels, the environmental benefits of the EV diminish significantly. In other words, EVs are only as green as their power source.

The share of individual energy sources in electricity production varies greatly across countries. For example, in the European Union (EU), the energy mix is dominated by renewable energy (49%) and nuclear energy (31.3%) on average. However, individual countries present significant variations. Malta and Iceland, for instance, rely entirely on renewable energy, while countries like Poland (71.5%), Estonia (55.9%), and the Czech Republic (44.5%) still depend heavily on fossil fuels like coal.

Countries like the Netherlands rely mostly on natural gas (58.4%). This variation emphasizes that the environmental performance of EVs is directly dependent on how the electricity is generated. In countries where energy production is obtained from fossil fuel sources, it is difficult to achieve a high reduction in emissions. This makes it imperative that countries shift to renewable energy sources to fully realize the potential environmental advantages of EVs.

V. Battery Recycling and End-of-Life (EoL) Management: A Crucial Challenge

The increasing number of EVs on the road necessitates efficient and sustainable battery recycling and end-of-life management. Current commercial methods for recycling lithium-ion batteries include:

• Pyrometallurgical processes: These involve using a high-temperature furnace to reduce and refine valuable metals. The process includes roasting, calcination, and smelting. Battery components decompose at high temperatures (usually up to 1400 °C). This method is designed to separate and collect precious metals like cobalt, nickel, and copper using thermodynamic reactions. However, organic solvents, lithium, and fluoride evaporate and are not recovered.
• Hydrometallurgical processes: These use physical and chemical operations in liquid media. It involves leaching (dissolving or leaching metals using alkaline or acidic agents), removal of impurities, and the recovery of metals like nickel, cobalt, manganese, and lithium. Metals dissolved in a liquid solution are then precipitated individually, typically as salts. This process often requires additional chemical treatment before reuse.
• Electrochemical (electro hydrometallurgical) methods are also used to recover valuable metals by electroplating using a leaching solution containing dissolved metals. This reduces the pollution of water used in recycling processes.

While each of these methods have their advantages, they also have disadvantages. For example, pyrometallurgy is not as efficient in recovering all the materials and is associated with air pollution, and hydrometallurgy generates significant amounts of sewage. Additionally, the current industrial recycling methods do not fully recover lithium. Direct recycling is a more efficient method that is currently performed at the laboratory scale and requires manual separation of the cathode from the rest of the battery.

Regardless of the method, only some materials can be recycled, due to the complex structure of the batteries. EV batteries contain materials that are or may become critical raw materials. This makes it essential to improve the technology to recover the largest possible share of materials.

It is also worth mentioning that the varying structure and chemical composition of EV batteries requires a shift toward normalizing and standardizing the batteries used in Electric Vehicles. This is necessary for efficient recycling, but raises questions about cooperation between vehicle manufacturers and the role of lawmakers. Finally, the ultimate goal is maximum efficiency when reclaiming critical raw materials from spent Electric Vehicle batteries.

VI. Second-Life Applications for Electric Vehicle Batteries: Extending Battery Lifespan

Instead of immediately recycling used EV batteries, there is a growing interest in their second-life applications. Second-life applications refer to reusing Electric Vehicle batteries for other purposes after their primary use in vehicles, effectively delaying the need for recycling.

The primary uses for these second-life batteries include:

• Energy storage systems: Used to store energy from renewable sources such as solar and wind power, thus improving the reliability of these sources.
• Grid stabilization: Used to support the stability and reliability of electrical grids, managing fluctuations in supply and demand.

The suitability of a battery for second-life applications depends on factors such as the battery’s state of health (SoH), degree of wear, and the reasons behind the EV recall (e.g., accident). It is estimated that most recalled Electric Vehicle batteries have an SoH rating above 75%, making them ideal for reuse.

Second-life applications make sense for companies if costs can be reduced and battery life extended. This includes regulatory policies which include high peak hour energy prices, as energy stored in second-life batteries can be used at peak hours to drive down costs .

Various companies have already started developing and implementing second-life programs:

• Automakers like Nissan and BMW are partnering with energy companies to reuse Electric Vehicle batteries for grid storage, providing backup power for communities, and even in mobile power units .
• Projects have been developed for 13 MWh of battery storage for grid stabilization in Germany and other countries .

These initiatives not only extend the life cycle of Electric Vehicle batteries but also contribute to a more sustainable and resilient energy infrastructure.

VII. Environmental Impacts of Battery Disposal: Addressing the Risks

Improper disposal of Electric Vehicle batteries presents significant environmental risks:

• Leaching of harmful chemicals: When batteries are not disposed of properly, they can leach harmful chemicals and heavy metals into the soil and water, contaminating ecosystems and potentially harming human health.
• Pollution: In landfills, batteries can decompose and release toxic substances into the environment. This can lead to air, water, and soil pollution, causing long-term ecological damage.
• Fire and explosion hazards: Improperly disposed of lithium-ion batteries can pose a risk of fire and explosion in waste facilities, creating safety hazards and releasing toxic fumes into the atmosphere.

To mitigate these risks, there is an essential need to develop proper mechanisms for the safe disposal of batteries. These include the availability of collection points, proper handling and transportation procedures, and appropriate treatment facilities. Failure to do so may lead to additional environmental hazards and hinder the goal of a sustainable EV future.

VIII. Policy and Regulation: Driving Sustainable Practices

Effective policy and regulation are vital for promoting sustainable EV battery management:

• EU Regulations: The European Union has implemented regulations related to recycling efficiency targets for Li-ion batteries, setting specific goals for material recovery and reuse.
• Global Regulations: There is a need for clear global regulations regarding the responsibility and liability of retired EV batteries, especially as vehicles cross borders and supply chains become more complex. These regulations should promote responsible manufacturing practices, require proper disposal, and promote the circular economy.
• Government Incentives and Subsidies: Governments play a key role in encouraging the adoption of EVs and the development of battery recycling infrastructure through incentives and subsidies.
• Cooperation between Stakeholders: Lawmakers must initiate collaboration between vehicle manufacturers, battery recyclers, and other stakeholders to ensure responsible battery management.
  • This includes promoting information sharing, setting industry standards, and creating effective mechanisms to recover the value from used batteries.

IX. Future Trends and Challenges: Navigating the Path Forward

Several future trends and challenges need attention as we move forward with EV technology:

• Standardization Challenges: The lack of standardization in battery designs and chemical compositions makes recycling more difficult. The unification of battery designs would help in the development of second-life applications. However, vehicle manufacturers aim to develop new LiBs with better performance characteristics, making standardization challenging.
• New Battery Technologies: The development of new battery technologies, such as solid-state and lithium-air batteries, could have significant implications for recycling and second-life applications. It will be necessary to plan for these future chemistries so recycling processes can be ready for them.
• Lithium Depletion: The resources for lithium and other critical materials will be exhausted in the future, further increasing the importance of recycling and the development of more sustainable battery chemistries.
• Irrational Battery Management: Incorrect handling of batteries after their first life may lead to unnecessary recycling (which requires energy) or improper storage (which creates risks such as leaks or fires). Proper assessment of the state of health (SoH) is needed to ensure rational management.
  • A proper framework is also needed to maximize the economic value from end-of-life Electric Vehicle batteries.

These challenges require ongoing research, innovation, and a commitment to sustainability.

Conclusion

The environmental impact of Electric Vehicle batteries is a complex issue with far-reaching implications. Electric Vehicles are not fully “eco-friendly” and their journey towards sustainability faces numerous challenges, starting from the extraction of raw materials to end-of-life management. While Electric Vehicles do provide significant benefits in terms of reduced emissions during operation, it is essential to recognize that their overall sustainability is affected by multiple factors:

• The source of electricity used for charging: EVs charged with renewable energy are far more environmentally friendly than those charged by fossil fuels.
• The processes of battery manufacturing: The environmental cost of manufacturing batteries, including the consumption of energy and raw materials and also the pollution caused, must be addressed.
• The implementation of efficient recycling: The proper management of end-of-life batteries, using recycling and reuse solutions is an area that needs more investment.
• The supply chain of raw materials: Responsible and sustainable sourcing of raw materials is essential to reduce the environmental and social impacts of mining.

To truly achieve “green” transportation, it will be necessary to prioritize sustainable mining, develop effective recycling technologies, promote reuse strategies, and ensure the use of renewable energy. As we transition towards greater electromobility, we must advocate for responsible practices, support policies that promote sustainable Electric Vehicle battery management, and encourage the development of new technologies. Only by taking a holistic and proactive approach, can we realize the full potential of electric vehicles in a truly sustainable way.

In summary, the journey towards sustainable Electric Vehicle batteries is ongoing and requires a concerted effort from all stakeholders, including governments, manufacturers, researchers, and consumers.

The environmental impact of electric vehicle (EV) batteries is a multifaceted issue, encompassing the entire lifecycle from raw material extraction to end-of-life management. While EVs offer a cleaner alternative to traditional combustion engine cars with zero tailpipe emissions, the production and disposal of their batteries present significant environmental challenges. Understanding these impacts is crucial for making informed decisions about sustainable transportation.

FAQ:

Q: Are electric vehicles (EVs) truly environmentally friendly, considering their batteries?

A: While EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, the environmental impact of their batteries is a complex issue. The production, use, and disposal of EV batteries do have environmental consequences that need to be addressed.

Q: What are the main environmental concerns related to EV battery production?

A: Key concerns include the resource-intensive mining of raw materials such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese, which can lead to habitat destruction and water pollution. The manufacturing process is also energy-intensive, with carbon footprints varying based on the energy sources used in different regions. Additionally, there are ethical concerns about the sourcing of these materials.

Q: What raw materials are used in EV batteries, and where do they come from?

A: EV batteries use materials such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese. Lithium is found in large quantities in Bolivia, Chile, China, and Brazil. Cobalt and nickel are often mined in areas with ethical concerns, and rare-earth elements like neodymium and praseodymium are used in the motors.

Q: What are the different types of EV batteries, and how do they differ environmentally?

A: The most common type is lithium-ion (Li-ion), which includes variations such as Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC) and Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP). NMC batteries have been popular but LFP batteries are gaining popularity due to lower cost and more readily available materials. Other types include Lithium Polymer (LiPo) batteries, often used in drones and portable electronics, known for their flexibility and light weight, but they have a shorter lifespan.

Q: How does the electricity source used to charge an EV impact its overall environmental footprint?

A: The environmental benefit of EVs is greatly influenced by the electricity source used for charging. If an EV is charged with electricity from renewable sources, like solar or wind, its environmental footprint is much smaller. However, if charged with electricity from fossil fuel-based power plants, the overall environmental impact increases.

Q: Do EV batteries degrade over time, and what factors influence their lifespan?

A: Yes, EV batteries degrade over time, reducing their capacity and efficiency. Factors such as operating temperature, depth of discharge (DoD), discharge rate (C-rate), state of charge (SoC), and time all contribute to battery aging.

Q: What happens to EV batteries at the end of their life?

A: EV batteries can be recycled to recover valuable materials, repurposed for second-life applications, or refurbished to extend their operational life. If improperly disposed of, EV batteries can cause fires or contaminate lands and water with toxic chemicals.

Q: What are the benefits of recycling EV batteries?

A: Recycling EV batteries recovers valuable materials, like cobalt, nickel, and lithium, reducing the need for new mining. It also helps to prevent environmental contamination. However, current recycling methods have limitations, particularly with lithium recovery. Direct recycling is an important direction for further research and development.

Q: What are second-life applications for EV batteries?

A: Second-life applications involve repurposing EV batteries for less demanding uses after their initial use in vehicles, such as stationary energy storage for residential, commercial, or grid applications. These applications can extend the battery’s lifespan and reduce waste.

Q: What is battery refurbishment, and how does it impact sustainability?

A: Battery refurbishment involves diagnosing and repairing EV batteries to extend their operational life. This can be a good waste-prevention measure, reducing the need for new batteries. The viability of refurbishment depends on factors such as cell conversion rates and the second lifespan of the battery.

Q: How do Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs) help in understanding the environmental impact of EV batteries?

A: LCAs evaluate the environmental impacts of EVs and their batteries from cradle to grave. This includes all stages from material extraction to end-of-life and includes factors like battery efficiency and changes to the electricity sector. LCAs help identify areas for improvement and make informed decisions about sustainable practices.

Q: What is being done to improve the sustainability of EV batteries?

A: Efforts include: * Developing new battery chemistries that use more readily available and environmentally friendly materials. * Improving recycling methods to increase the recovery of valuable materials and reduce waste. * Designing batteries for easier recycling and refurbishment, and with second-life applications in mind. * Implementing government regulations and incentives to promote responsible battery management.

Q: How can businesses contribute to sustainable EV battery practices?

A: Businesses can:

• Ensure their supply chain adheres to ethical sourcing standards.
• Invest in recycling and repurposing programs.
• Support the development of new, sustainable battery technologies.
• Use tools like IMPLAN to assess their environmental impacts and make data-driven decisions.

Q: What are some of the challenges in Electric Vehicle battery recycling?

A: Challenges include the lack of standardization in battery design, which makes it difficult to disassemble and recycle, and the limitations of current recycling methods in recovering all valuable materials, particularly lithium. Additionally, the infrastructure for large-scale battery recycling is still developing.

Q: Are there any regulations or policies in place for Electric Vehicle battery recycling?

A: Yes, there are regulations in places such as California, China, and the European Union that promote the responsible handling of end-of-life EV batteries. These include requirements for manufacturers to disclose battery information, include recycled content in new batteries, and track batteries throughout their lifetime to ensure they get recycled.

Q: What are the long-term implications of electromobility?

A: The long-term implications of electromobility include both the potential for environmental benefits and the need to address risks associated with the production and disposal of EV batteries. If properly managed, Electric Vehicles can be a major factor in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting a more sustainable future. However, this depends on developing responsible practices for battery production and end-of-life management.

Okay, here are 5 external links, with the name of the organization or agency and a short description, that are relevant to the environmental impact of Electric Vehicle batteries, and that can be used in your article:

• International Energy Agency (IEA): The IEA is an intergovernmental organization that provides data, analysis, and solutions on a wide range of energy-related issues. Their website offers reports and statistics on the role of critical minerals in clean energy transitions, which is very relevant to Electric Vehicle battery production. It also provides information about the energy mix in various countries which impacts the overall footprint of EVs .
• U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA): The EIA is a principal statistical agency of the U.S. Department of Energy. Their website provides data, analysis, and forecasts on energy-related matters, including energy production and consumption in the United States , which can help understand the impact of different electricity sources on the environmental impact of EVs. It also gives data on the energy mix for various countries .
• Eurostat: Eurostat is the statistical office of the European Union. Their website offers a wide range of data and publications on various topics, including energy and the environment. It provides insight into energy sources and the environmental impact of energy consumption in Europe, which is directly related to the environmental footprint of EV batteries and their life cycle in Europe.
• Lithium-ion Battery Recycling: This company offers a variety of information about lithium-ion battery recycling, such as what “black mass” is, and how lithium-ion batteries are recycled . They also provide a clear overview of the recycling process.
• MDPI: MDPI is an open-access publisher of scientific journals. Their website hosts research articles, such as one on the environmental impact, source of energy, recycling, and second life of EV batteries, that is highly relevant to your search intent. This may be a useful research tool for your article.